Chapter 1

Figure 1.1: Aristotle, circa 384-322 BC

Source: http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/history/carnegie/aristotle/bust.html

Figure 1.2: The Christian Aristotelian cosmos, engraving from Peter Apian's Cosmographia, 1524

Source: http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/glossary/ptolemy.html

Figure 1.3: Ptolemy, AD 127-145

Source: http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/theories/ptolemaic_system.html

Figure 1.4: A ptolomaic construction of planetary motion, where E is the Earth, C the geometric center of the eccentric circle, Q the equant point, F the center of the epicycle, and P the planet.

Source: http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/theories/ptolemaic_system.html, From Michael J. Crowe, Theories of the World from Antiquity to the Copernican Revolution.

Figure 1.5: Nicolaus Copernicus (Mikolaj Kopernik), 1473-1643

Source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Copernicus.html

First Epicycle

Second Epicycle

Center

Earth

Equant

Deferent

Celestial Object

Figure 1.6: Example of elliptical (first epicycle) and retrograde (second epicycle) orbits produced using epicycles.

Figure 1.7: Isaac Newton (1643 - 1727)

From a portrait by Kneller in 1689

Source:

http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/PictDisplay/Newton.html

Figure 1.8: Albert Einstein (1879 – 1955)

Source:

http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Einstein.html

Figure 1.9: Renormalization in quantum electrodynamics: A single interaction (left) between a photon (g) and electron (e^-) is replaced by multiple interactions (right).

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renormalization#A_loop_divergence

Figure 1.10: Emmy Noether (1882-1935)

Source: www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Noether_Emmy.html

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 : Christian Huygens, 1629 - 1695
Source: http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/PictDisplay/Huygens.html

Check with SPL/Photo Researchers (b/w vs. color image)

Figure 2.2: Thomas Young, 1773 - 1829

Source:

http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Young_Thomas.html

Figure 2.3: Augustin Fresnel, 1788 - 1827

Source:

http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/PictDisplay/Fresnel.html

Figure 2.4: George Gabriel Stokes, 1819 – 1903

Source:

http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/PictDisplay/Stokes.html

Figure 2.5: James MacCullagh, 1809 - 1847

Source: http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/PictDisplay/MacCullagh.html

Figure 2.6: Joseph Boussinesq, 1842-1929

Source: http://ambafrance-ca.org/HYPERLAB/PEOPLE/bouss.html

Figure 2.7: William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), 1824 - 1907

Source:

http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/PictDisplay/Thomson.html

Figure 2.8: James Clerk Maxwell, 1831 - 1879

Source:

http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/Mathematicians/Maxwell.html

Figure 2.9: Albert Michelson, 1852-1931

Source:

http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1907/index.html

Figure 2.10: Hendrik Lorentz, 1853 - 1928

Source: http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/PictDisplay/Lorentz.html

Figure 2.11: Jules Henri Poincare, 1854 - 1912

Source :

http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/PictDisplay/Poincare.html

Figure 2.12: Max Planck, 1858 - 1947

Source:

http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Planck.html

Figure 2.13: Neils Bohr, 1885-1962

Source:

http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Bohr_Niels.html

Figure 2.14: Louis Victor de Broglie, 1892-1987

Source: http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Broglie.html

Figure 2.15: Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer in 1927

Source: http://faculty.rmwc.edu/tmichalik/davisson.htm

(a) (b)

Figure 2.16: Images of diffraction from crystals of (a) x-rays and (b) electrons of similar wavelength

Source: http://online.cctt.org/physicslab/content/phyapb/lessonnotes/dualnature/Davisson_Germer.asp;

Copyright © 1997-2002 Catharine H. Colwell. All rights reserved. PhysicsLAB.

Figure 2.17: Time Dilation: The clock on O¢ ticks slower than the clock on O by the factor because waves travel farther between transmission and detection. Both O and O¢ measure the same number of clock cycles for a wave to propagate from their own sub to the fish and back. Hence they agree on distances perpendicular to the direction of relative motion.

Figure 2.18: Length Contraction: The true wave propagation time for the co-moving sub and fish is longer than for the stationary sub and fish by the factor 1/(1-v²/c_s²). Since the moving clock runs slow, the perceived propagation time is longer only by the factor . Hence the stationary sub observes a shorter length than the moving sub.

Figure 2.19: Classical Doppler shifts for moving (approaching) source and detector differ by a factor of . This factor is not affected by reversal of the velocity direction.

Figure 2.20: Velocity Measurement: Radar signals sent simultaneously by O and O¢ will also be received simultaneously after reflection. Although O¢’s clock ticks slowly, the proportionality between radar pulse propagation time and total time elapsed is the same as for O. Therefore both O and O¢ measure the same relative velocity.

Figure 2.21: Energy, momentum, and mass have the same Pythagorean relation as light speed (c), velocity (u), and , respectively (with appropriate unit normalization).

Figure 2.22: Time Dilation: Moving matter waves propagate farther than stationary matter waves during each cycle. Therefore moving clocks tick more slowly than stationary clocks. d_S = distance traveled in one cycle of stationary wave, d_T = translational distance. The distance formula for the cycloid is exact only for an integer number of cycles.

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1: J.J. Thomson, 1856-1940

Source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1906/thomson-bio.html

Figure 3.2: Ernest Rutherford, 1871-1937

Source: http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/1908/rutherford-bio.html

Figure 3.3: Arnold J.W. Sommerfeld, 1868-1951

Source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Sommerfeld.html

Figure 3.4: Werner Heisenberg, 1901-1976

Source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Heisenberg.html

Figure 3.5: Erwin Schrodinger, 1887-1961

Source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Schrodinger.html

Figure 3.6: Wolfgang Pauli, 1900-1958

Source: http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/PictDisplay/Pauli.html

Figure 3.7: Paul Dirac, 1902-1984

Source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Dirac.html

Figure 3.8: Rotation of a single bar on a torsion wave machine results in mirror-symmetric waves propagating in opposite directions. This is a one-dimensional analogue of production of particles and anti-particles. Matter and anti-matter are also always produced in mirror-symmetric pairs.

Chapter 4

Isaac Newton, 1643 – 1727

Source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Newton.html

Pierre-Simon Laplace, 1749-1827

Source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Laplace.html

Lóránd Baron von Eötvös, 1848-1919

Source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Biographies/Eotvos.html

Albert Einstein, 1879 – 1955

Source: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Einstein.html

David Hilbert, 1862 - 1943

http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Hilbert.html

Karl Schwarzschild, 1873-1916

http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Schwarzschild.html

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Figure: Rotation of a single bar on a torsion wave machine results in mirror-symmetric waves propagating in opposite directions. This is a one-dimensional analogue of production of particles and anti-particles. Anti-matter and matter behave exactly as if they are mirror images of each other.